Saturday, September 7, 2019
Lifespan Development Essay Example for Free
Lifespan Development Essay Lifespan development, also known as human development, is a field of study that is devoted to understanding constancy and change throughout a person’s lifespan (Berk, 2010). Lifespan development begins with infancy and looks at several points in a person’s life in which significant change takes place. The study of children did not begin until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Berk, 2010). Throughout the years, there was much speculation about how people grow and change and when combined with research, theories of development surfaced. These theories were vital and provided organized frameworks for observations of people and they are verified by research and provide a basis for practical action (Berk, 2010). Many theories developed to study the development of infants and children through out life and these theories continue to have an impact on society and research today. There are many notable development researchers and schools of thought such as Locke, Rousseau, Arnold Gesell, Ivan Pavlov, Lawrence Kohlberg, Social Learning Theory, Stages of Moral Development, and Ethiological Theories just to name a few (Crain, 2005). There are some researchers and schools of thought who still have an impact today such as Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution, Jean Piaget and his Cognitive-Developmental theory, and the Psychoanalytic theory first developed by Sigmund Freud. Charles Darwin is significant to developmental studies today because it was he who paved the way, or opened the door for the many schools of thought that followed. Darwin is known as the forefather of scientific child study (Berk, 2010). Darwin was a naturalist who observed the variation among plant and animal species but along with that, he also noticed that within a specific species, no two individuals were alike (Berk, 2010). Darwin developed his theory which emphasized the principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest. Darwin’s theory stated that certain species survive in particular environments because they have characteristics that fit with or are adapted to their surroundings (Berk, 2010). Those within the species that best meet the survival requirements live long enough to reproduce and keep the species going (Berk, 2010). Darwin, in his travels and research, noticed some similarities in prenatal growth among species. Darwin noted that the embryos of most species are highly similar in their early forms revealing their descent from a common ancestor (Crain, 2005). Today, in the broad scheme of things, Darwin’s theory is correct in that there is variation within species and only some survive long enough to reproduce and pass along traits. What Darwin did not understand was the mechanisms underlying the transmission of traits (Crain, 2005). Because of this, Darwin is considered the starting point for the vast amount of research done on lifespan development. Another important aspect of the study of lifespan development is the Cognitive-Developmental theory of Jean Piaget. Piaget’s theory stated that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world (Berk, 2010). Piaget did not believe that a child’s learning depended on reinforcers as the behaviorists believed. Piaget developed stages and he realized that children pass through his stages at different rates and did not pay specific attention to the ages at the various stages but noted that they all pass through the stages in the same order (Crain, 2005). Piaget’s theory consisted of four periods: Sensorimotor Intelligence (birth to 2 years), Preoperational Thought (2 to 7), Concrete Operations (7 to 11), and Formal Operations (11 to adulthood) (Berk, 2010; Crain, 2005). Piaget was able to convince people that children are active learners whose minds consist of rich structures of knowledge (Berk, 2010). Piaget’s research influenced much of the research today that focuses on children’s concept of self, other people, and human relationships. Many educational philosophies and programs that place emphasis on discovery learning and direct contact were encouraged by Piaget’s theory (Berk, 2010; Crain, 2005). Piaget’s theory did not come without criticism and challenges. Some researchers believe that Piaget actually underestimated the competencies of children. This called for much research to be conducted to challenge and refute Piaget’s theory and also to find ways to expound upon and improve his theory. The most influential school of thought is that of the Psychoanalytic perspective developed by Sigmund Freud. This perspective states that people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations. (Berk, 2010). The school of thought basically focused on the fact that psychological change is governed by inner forces such as feelings, impulses, and fantasies (Crain, 2005). Freud had all of his patients use free association in their sessions allowing them to talk freely about the painful events of their childhood (Berk, 2010). Freud developed the psychosexual theory based on theiry unconscious thoughts. This theory states that how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years is crucial for healthy personality development (Berk, 2010). Freud’s theory was considered the first to place importance on the influence of the early parent-child relationship and its involvement in development (Berk, 2010). Freud’s theory received much criticism because he did not study children directly and was heavy on the sexual influences in development (Crain, 2005). The controversy surrounding this particular school of thought, prompted much research making it one of, if not the influential theories in development. Research on the many aspects of emotional and social development which includes infant-caregiver attachment, aggression, sibling relationships, child-rearing practices, morality, gender roles, and adolescent identity grew from the theory of Freud (Berk, 2010). There are many different ways in which development is researched. One way is systematic observation. There are different ways in which observations of children and adults can be conducted. Some researchers choose to go into the field or the natural environment and record the behavior which is known as naturalistic observation (Berk, 2010). Through naturalistic observation, researchers are able to get a first hand look at the subjects. On the other side though, some people may not display the same behavior in their everyday life. Structured observations happen when the researcher sets up a laboratory situation that evokes behavior of interest so that every participant has equal opportunity to display the response (Berk, 2010). The ways that the research is gathered varies depending on what is being researched. Systematic observations tell how people actually behave but fail to provide the reasons behind the behavior. Self-reports allow participants to provide information on their perceptions, thoughts, abilities, feelings, and other things of that nature. They are normally structured interviews, unstructured interviews, questionnaires, and tests. Clinical interviews allow for researchers to use a flexible, conversational style to probe for the participant’s point of view (Berk, 2010). Structured interviews, which includes tests and questionnaires, asks all participants the same set of questions (Berk, 2010). They are easier to score and the researchers are able to identify a behavior of interest because the participants is given alternatives in answer choices. The case study methods brings together a wide range of information on one person, including interviews, observations, and test scores (Berk, 2010). This method is generally used when one wants to study a particular group that may be small in size but varies in characteristics. This method can be viewed as bias because the information that is collected is sometimes done unsystematically and is subjective and geared toward the researchers theoretical perspective. There are other ways of studying development such as ethnography which is aimed at studying a culture as a whole or a distinct social group through participant observation. Ethics plays a major role in the study of development as well. It is important to consider things such as the rights of the participants. This includes, protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of the result, and beneficial treatments (Berk, 2010). Informed consent is especially important because it provides safeguards for children and elderly people who are cognitively impaired or have to be cared for in settings for the chronically ill (Berk, 2010). Research generally creates ethical issues because of the search for scientific knowledge and at the same time has the opportunity to exploit people. References Berk, L.E. (2010). Development through the lifespan. (5th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon Crain, W. (2005). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. (5th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall
Friday, September 6, 2019
Cleft Lip and Palate and its Effect on Speech Essay Example for Free
Cleft Lip and Palate and its Effect on Speech Essay Introduction on Speech and Phonetics            Phonetics and phonology are concerned with speech – with the ways in which human produce and hear speech. Talking and listening to each other are so much part of normal life that they often seem unremarkable. Yet, as in any scientific field, the curious investigator finds rich complexity beneath the surface. Even the simplest of conversations – an exchange of short greetings, for example – presupposes that the speaker and hearer make sense to each other and understand each other. Their ability to communicate in this way depends in turn on proper bodily functioning (of brain, lungs, larynx, ears and so on), on recognizing each other’s pronunciation a bewildering jumble of unpronounceable and unintelligible noise only underlines the extent of our organization and control of talking and listening within particular social and linguistic conventions.            Once we make a decision to start with an examination of speech, we can come up to it on a range of steps. At one step, speech is an issue of anatomy and physiology where we can examine the organs of speech such as tongue and larynx and their role in the creation of speech. Taking another perspective, we can focus on the speech sounds produced by these organs – the units that we commonly try to identify by letters such as a ‘b-sound’ or an ‘m-sound’. But speech is transmitted as sound waves themselves. Taking yet another approach, the term ‘sounds’ is a prompt that speech is proposed to be heard or supposed that it is then probable to concentrate on the manner in which a listener understands and process a sound wave (Clark, Yallop, Fletcher, 2006).            Phonetics is the study of the sounds of natural language. The use of sounds in speech involves three distinct phases: 1) the production of sounds by the speaker, 2) the transmission of sounds between the speaker and the hearer, and 3) the reception of the sounds by the hearer. Each of these phases especially 1) and 3), which clearly involve the human brain, is an extremely complicated process, each needs to be understood if we wish to have full understanding of the workings of human speech, and each requires its own methods of study. The science of phonetics thus consists of three main branches, each devoted to the study of one of the phases of speech.            Articulatory phonetics is the study of the way in which speech sounds are produced or ‘articulated’ by the speaker. It includes a description of the organs of speech, such as the vocal cords, the tongue and the palate, and how they are used to produce sounds. The description of speech in articulatory terms has a long history, going back to ancient times, and is still considered the most useful type of description for language teaching purposes. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the transmission of speech sounds through the air in the form of air waves. Precise studies of the transmission stage of speech rely heavily on electronic equipment which has only been available since the 1930s and 1940s, but in the relatively short space of time since then great strides have been made in our understanding of the transmission of speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is not as important in pronunciation teaching as articulatory phonetics, but it can be of valuable assistance in certain areas such as the description of vowel sounds or intonations, which are not easily described in articulatory terms. Auditory phonetics, finally, studies the processes in the ear, auditory nerve and brain which lead to the perception of sounds by the hearer (Hall, 2003). Organs of Speech            The first essential for the student of Phonetics is to have a clear idea of the structure and functions of the various parts of the organs of speech. The term organs of speech is used to refer to parts of the body in the larynx and the vocal tract that are involved in the production of speech. It is a misleading term in that it suggests that we have special physical organs for speaking. This is not so: all our so-called ‘organs of speech’ have primary biological functions relating to our respiratory system and the processing of food (Gussenhoven Jacobs, 1998).            The organs of speech are all bodily structure composed of a variety of tissue types (such as bone, cartilage and skin) which are specific to their biological (rather than linguistic) function. Bodily organs are generally grouped into systems which have particular functions in the life of the organism. These include the respiratory system, the digestive system, and the reproductive system and so on. While it can be argued that the organs of speech form a system, they do not contribute to life support in the same way as other systems, and they are generally not thought of as performing their primary biological function when they are used in speech production (Clark et al., 2006). Nature of Speech Defects            Speech is a motor act that requires little concentration once it is learned. The energy source for speech is air. The diaphragm is the primary muscle of respiration and air is inhaled and exhaled through the vocal tract, the diaphragm contracts and flattens; this enlarges the thoracic cavity by displacing the abdominal contents downward and expanding the thoracic volume. The external intercostals assist the diaphragm in increasing the size of the thoracic capacity. If these movements are not coordinated, the supply and control of air may be reduced. Lack of coordination occurs during inhalation when the abdominal muscles contract simultaneously with the diaphragm and push the abdominal contents upward. This upward movement decreases the size of the thoracic cavity, which reduced the amount of air available for the production of speech. Restriction of the air supply may lead to reduced loudness, illogical breath groups, limited pitch range, decreased intelligibility and increased expiratory effort. Respiration for speech should be effortless and coordinated with phonation and resonation. Adduction of the vocal folds in a stream of air produces phonation. During quiet respiration, the vocal folds are abducted to an intermediate position by the poster cricoarytenoid muscles. Changes in the vibration pattern may result in altered voice quality, pitch, and loudness and decreased speech intelligibility Communication is a closed loop system. When individuals speak, others hear them and respond to their speech. In addition, individuals hear themselves speak and monitor their speech production. If speech production does not match the specific intention, then speech os modified. When speakers have a speech disorder, they may compensate for the impaired speech production by changing their respiration, phonation, and articulation. If this compensation is carried out in an effortful way, the compensation may be counterproductive and may worsen the symptoms (Brin, Comella, Jankovic, 2004). Speech Assessments            Speech assessments proper are established from the age of 4 years and allow objective evaluation to take place over a long period.            The articulation of phonemes is routinely evaluated during sessions of repetition as well as free speech.            The speech-language pathologist (SLP) will also evaluate the child’s speech production and some of the aspects of phonology. The SLP will ask the child to say various syllables or words and evaluate the â€Å"correctness†of what the child says. The SLP is trained to listen and compare all aspects of speech to a criterion of correct production. The SLP will comment on the child’s voice quality. Does the child’s voice sound like a typical child’s should at that age? Is it too high-pitched, strained, or too nasal? The SLP will comment on fluency, or the relative ease with which the child talks. Does the child stutter or stammer? The SLP will also perform oral-motor exam. In this exam, the SLP asks the child to do some movements incorporating his tongue, lips, teeth, cheeks, soft palate, and jaw. These movements are checked to see if the child has any weakness or coordination problems with the muscles and structures of the mouth that would influence the child’s ability to produce the speech sounds correctly. The SLP will also do an articulation test. In this test the SLP asks the child to say a group of syllables or words that contain all the sounds of English. The SLP makes a judgment about how correctly the child produced the sound. Sometimes the SLP marks whether the error was an omission (the child did not say the sound at all), a substitution (the child substituted one sound for another; for example the child said â€Å"pish†instead of â€Å"fish†), or a distortion (the child said a sound that was not the correct speech sound and did not sound like another sound). The SLP will list which sounds were produced incorrectly and make suggestions for follow-up therapy (Easterbrooks Estes, 2007). Cleft Lip and Palate            It is the term applied to a fissure in the roof of the mouth (palate) and/or the lip which is present at birth. It is found in varying degrees of severity in about 1 in 700 children. Modern plastic surgery can greatly improve the appearance of the baby and often further cosmetic surgery later will not be necessary. The parent of the child who has cleft lip and/or palate will be given detailed advice specific to his case. In general the team of specialists involved are the pediatrician, plastic surgeon, dentist or orthodontic specialist, and speech therapist (Havard, 1990).            The deficiencies associated with cleft palate depend on the location of the defect in the palate. In the normal palate, the tensor veli palatine and levator palatine muscles within the soft palate insert into an aponeurosis at the midline raphe. In the cleft palate, the muscle fibers follow the medial margin of the cleft and insert into the medial cleft edges and the posterior edge of the lateral bony hard palate. Clefts involving the alveolus can disrupt normal dental development, eruption, and retention.            The subject of normal human facial growth is extremely complex and incompletely understood; and superimposing a cleft defect complicates an already complex process. Many children with clefts will develop collapse of the alveolar arches, midface retrusion, and resultant malocclusion as they approach their teenage years. The underlying cleft deformity itself, as well as the surgical procedures performed to correct the defect, has been implicated as possible contributing causes of these developments. Currently, controversy exists regarding the relationship between surgical procedures and maxillary growth in terms of the sequencing of the surgical procedures, the timing of the cleft repair; whether or not the cleft repair itself has an effect on maxillofacial growth, and the various surgical techniques of lip and palate repair. Of interest, it is common in nonsyndromic older children whose cleft is unrepaired to have relatively normal midfacial projection and occlusion (Bailey, Johnson, Newlands, 2006). The Effects on Speech and Resonance            Dental problems in children with cleft lip and palate or craniofacial syndromes can be quite complex. These problems frequently require dental specialists to coordinate treatment with other health care providers in order to properly manage the patient. The specialists involved usually include a pediatric dentist, an orthodontist, an oral maxillofacial surgeon, and a prosthodontist. Together, they monitor and treat problems of the developing dentition, occlusion, and facial growth of the cleft lip/palate patient. As dental professionals reconstruct the oral environment, the speech pathologist leads to a more holistic management of the structural and functional effects of dental and speech abnormalities (Kumme, 2000).            Speech may be difficult to understand and have a muffled nasal quality, the greatest difficulty being in the pronunciation of consonants. This type of inadequate closure leads to the diagnosis of ‘cleft-palate’ speech, even though the palate is anatomically closed. In some cases adenoid tissue helps to close the space, so its removal by surgery or its decrease at the time of adolescence leads to further deterioration of speech. There may be associated, non-specific neurological symptoms (Baird Gordon, 1983). Cleft Palate Repair            The reasons for cleft palate repair are improved feeding, speech development and protection of the Eustachian tube, and effect on the growth of the middle third of the face. Not enough attention was paid to the hearing in cleft palate patients and, in the earlier years, the speech was also not given important consideration. All the attention was focused on the growth of the middle third of the face but if one misses the hearing and the speech, the damage is irreversible. The timing of cleft palate repair has always been governed by geographical location. In the European Centers, the repair is delayed for considerably longer, even up to six to seven years. In the English speaking countries, the repair is done around one year of age, but why leave these repairs till so late as speech usually develops by seven months? Physiologically, it is better to repair the palate before speech starts developing, so that postoperative edema and scarring settles down, it is then better to operate in the cleft palate at four months. Traditionally, the treatment of cleft lip and palate was to repair the cleft lip and anterior palate (single layer closure) between six to 12 weeks of age and repair the palate at about 18 months (Desai, 1997).            Currently, the majority of surgeons around the world who treat many of these children prefer to operate around 3 months of age for physiological and technical reasons. A 0.25mm error in alignment in a 1-day-old- child will show noticeable 1 to 2mm malalignment by age 1 year. The cleft palate is repaired best at around age 12 months. This is a compromise. Earlier repair may be an advantage for speech, but it is a disadvantage to subsequent facial growth. Late repair has an opposite effect. It is subsequently easier today to correct an underdeveloped midface in the 10% to 20% of patients in whom it may occur, rather than trying to correct bad speech in nearly all patients so treated by late palate closure. Cleft lip and palate need no longer be devastating deformity that it was 30 years ago, if untreated by an experienced team (which needs to see at least 40 new patients a year), the child should be expected to have normal speech, a symmetrical lip with a fine scar, a nose close to normal in appearance, and a full set of well-fitting teeth. To achieve this requires good patient and parent cooperation. In most cases, further surgery will be required by age 5 years to improve the nose shape. The wearing of orthodontic braces is almost inevitable but should be limited to 1 session in early adolescence. With good psychosocial support and good parenting, such children should grow into normal well-adjusted adults. However, if the quality of the surgery is bad and repeated operations are carried out, the speech and hearing are ignored and the teeth are not treated, then a very different psychological outcome will be present. Unfortunately, this still occurs even in the most advanced countries, if children are treated by either inexperienced or inadequately trained people, or without the benefits of a team approach, or where the team does not have a big enough population load to maintain its expertise (Eder, 1995). Surgical Management of the Primary Deformity            Lip Adhesion            If the child presents with a very wide cleft lip and a palate, it may be advantageous to â€Å"help†the cleft to become narrower, thereby facilitating the surgical outcome of the cleft lip repair. Most commonly, presurgical orthopedic molding of the wide cleft palate and lip can be accomplished with a process called â€Å"taping.†In taping, a strip of hypoallergenic tape is applied with tension across the cleft and secured to the child’s cheeks. The tape is worn 24 hours a day and reapplied as needed. Taping causes molding of the bony tissues by applying gentle pressure onto the protruding bony portions of the maxilla. This simple technique can be extremely effective in reducing the width of the cleft in a nonsurgical manner. When taping a ineffective or not tolerated by the infant, a lip adhesion can be considered. The goal of a lip adhesion is to surgically convert a complete cleft lip into an incomplete cleft lip, allowing the definitive lip repair to be performed with less tension. The lip adhesion also orthopedically molds and improves the alignment of the underlying maxillary segments before definitive lip repair. Lip adhesion, if indicated, is the initial procedure and it is performed at 2 to 4 weeks of age. Definitive lip repair follows the adhesion at 4-6 months of age, which allows the scar to mature. The following criteria are used to determine if lip adhesion is needed (following failure of the taping technique): Wide, unilateral complete cleft lip and palate where closure with conventional lip repair might produce excessive tension on the incision Symmetric, wide bilateral complete cleft lip with a very protruding premaxilla Introduction of symmetry to an asymmetric bilateral cleft lip A disadvantage of lip adhesion is the introduction of scar tissue, which can occasionally interfere with the definitive lip repair; although not usually a major concern, this has prompted some surgeons to limit its use. Cleft Lip Repair If no medical contraindications exist, and a lip adhesion has not been performed previously, definite lip repair is accomplished at 8 to 12 weeks of age. In the United States most surgeons follow the â€Å"rule of tens†: lip repair is performed when the infant is at least 10 weeks old, weighs 10 pounds, and has hemoglobin of 10 g. Cleft Palate Restoration Historically, the exact timing of surgical closure of the cleft palate has been controversial. The desire to facilitate velopharyngeal competence for adequate speech favors relatively early closure of the palate, whereas the possible negative influence on maxillofacial growth and occlusion favors relatively late closure. Anatomic factors to consider when evaluating the palate include the extent and width of the cleft (between both the alveolar ridge and palatal shelves); position of the maxillary segments; and, in the bilateral cleft, the size, position, and degree of protrusion of the premaxilla and prolabium. In both unilateral and bilateral complete cleft palate, collapse of the lateral maxillary segment can occur following the lip repair. In some cases, preoperative orthopedics can be used to realign the maxillary segments in a more normal position before the palate is repaired. In bilateral cleft, presurgical orthopedic treatment consists of molding the nasoalveolar process with progressively modified splints, and achieving lengthening of the deficient and short columella tissue, leading to an improved nasal appearance with a single stage procedure. Other groups favor techniques that allow for intranasal correction of the deformity and malposition during the lip repair. Although insufficient space exist to describe all the commonly used techniques, the principles of bilateral lip repair are common among them, including creation of the philtrum from the prolabium and midline tubercle from the lateral vermilion. A symmetric, bilateral complete cleft lip and palate with an adequate and moderately protruding prolabium and premaxilla are used as an example. Asymmetric, bilateral cleft lips and those with a rotated premaxilla can be treated with a one or two-stage closure (using the lip adhesion as the first stage). For children with an extremely protruding premaxilla, presurgical orthopedics may be required before definitive lip repair to move the premaxilla posteriorly, either surgically or via molding with appliances or tape (Bailey et al., 2006). Clinical Alert            Daily use of folic acid before conception decreases the risk for isolated (not associated with another genetic or congenital malformation) cleft lip or palate by up to 25%. Women of childbearing age should be encouraged to take a daily multivitamin containing folic acid until menopause or until they’re no longer fertile (Kumme, 2000).            Use of a contoured speech bulb attached to the posterior of a denture to occlude the nasopharynx helps the child develop intelligible speech when a wide horseshoe defect makes surgery impossible. Special nipples and other feeding devices are available to improve feeding patterns and promote nutrition in infants with a cleft lip or palate (Eder, 1995). Conclusion            There is no comparable series of routine cleft lip repair in newborn within 48 hours over a long period using the same technique; it is extremely difficult to fulfill such requirements as the temptation to alter the technique or timing is so great.            Every now and then, ideas about the treatment and techniques are reported in the literature or at conferences. There was considerable opposition to, and criticism of, our work at every level, nationally as well as internationally.            If one contemplates surgery in the newborn, then a proper team should be assembled. A surgeon should only undertake such a project if he feels it will help the child, not to impress other surgeons. A time will come when there will be fewer surgeons undertaking the treatment of these children in specialized centers.            It is a safe procedure in the hands of dedicated clinicians and surgeons. Pediatricians and the anesthesiologist should have a final say in the decision for surgery. It is possible to do a formal repair. The scar revision in unilateral cleft is comparable to any other series. In bilateral clefts the plan is to lengthen the columella, repair the orbicularis and narrow the philtrum at the same time at about four or five years of age. It may be worth looking at the technique of palate repair. One has to find a way to achieve repair early on in order to maintain hearing and speech results while achieving excellent maxillary alignment (Desai, 1997). References: Bailey, B. J., Johnson, J. T., Newlands, S. D. (2006). Head Neck Surgeryotolaryngology (4th ed. Vol. 1). Tokyo: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Baird, H. W., Gordon, E. C. (1983). Neurological Evaluation of Infants and Children. London: Cambridge University Press. Brin, M. F., Comella, C. L., Jankovic, J. J. (2004). Dystonia: Etiology, Clinical Features, and Treatment. New York: Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Clark, J., Yallop, C., Fletcher, J. (2006). An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology. Victoria, AU: Blackwell Publishing. Desai, S. N. (1997). Neonatal Surgery of the Cleft Lip and Palate. Hongkong: World Scientific. Easterbrooks, S. R., Estes, E. L. (2007). Helping Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students to Use Spoken Language. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. Eder, R. A. (1995). Craniofacial Anomalies: Psychological Perspectives. New York: Springer. Gussenhoven, C., Jacobs, H. (1998). Understanding Phonology. London: Oxford University Press US. Hall, C. (2003). Modern German Pronunciation: An Introduction for Speakers of English. New York USA: Manchester University Press. Havard, C. W. H. (1990). Blacks Medical Dictionary. Savage, Maryland: Rowman Littlefield. Kumme, A. W. (2000). Cleft Palate and Craniofacial Anomalies: The Effects on Speech and Resonance. San Diego, Canada: Thomson Delmar Learning.
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Change Management In Sony Pictures Management Essay
Change Management In Sony Pictures Management Essay In 2008 Amy Pascal (Co-Chairman, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Chairman, Motion Picture Group, Sony Pictures Entertainment) and Michael Lynton (Chairman CEO, Sony Pictures Entertainment) engaged The Energy Project as a part of an effort to create a culture in which employees felt energetic and excited about coming to work every day. Beginning with the senior team, our facilitators delivered our curriculum to some 500 managers and leaders. More than 90% said it has helped them bring more energy to work every day. Almost 88% felt that it has made them more focused and productive. We trained more than a dozen Sony internal facilitators to deliver our work, and by April 2010, some version of our curriculum will have been delivered to all 5500 Sony Pictures employees around the world.  In the midst of a severe recession, and a dramatic industry-wide decline in DVD sales, Sony expects to record one of its most profitable years ever in the fiscal year ending March 2009. TABLE OF CONTENTS INDEX PAGE NO. Introductionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Literature review Change Why change management Discussion of Change Management Theoriesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Plan Do Check Act Lewins Freeze Phases Issues to Changeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.. Implementation of Change Managementà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Transformation in Sony pictures Overcoming resistance in employeeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Sustaining changeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Conclusionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Referencesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Appendixà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. INTRODUCTION Sony Pictures Entertainment (SPE) was formerly known as Columbia pictures entertainment, headquartered in Culver City, CALIFORNIA. The company was founded in 1987 and it was renamed Sony pictures entertainment in 1991. It is a subsidiary of Sony Corporation of America (SCA), a subsidiary of Tokyo-based Sony Corporation. SPEs global operations encompass motion picture production and distribution; television production and distribution; digital content creation and distribution; worldwide channel investments; home entertainment acquisition and distribution; operation of studio facilities; development of new entertainment products, services and technologies; and distribution of entertainment in more than 140 countries. The companys slogan is Sony like no other. SPE recorded total sales of $7.6 billion for fiscal year ended March 31, 2010. Key people of SONY PICTURES are Howard Stringer (Chairman, President and CEO of Sony Corporation),Michael Lynton (Chairman CEO, Sony Pictures Ente rtainment),Amy Pascal (Co-Chairman, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Chairman, Motion Picture Group, Sony Pictures Entertainment), Jeff Blake (Vice Chairman, Sony Pictures Entertainment). Sony Pictures Plaza in Culver City, California LITERATURE REVIEW CHANGE: Change is all around us in different types and categories; it can be brought by us or can come in any way to us. Change is the way through which future enters your life. Future is coming fast; we cannot predict but only react when we face it. Steven Kerr Why change management? Changes can come yourself or it can come in ways that give you little choice about its what, when, and how. Fighting against change slows it down or diverts it, but it wont stop it however. If you wish to succeed in this rapidly changing new world you must learn to look on change as a friend one who presents you with an opportunity for growth and improvement. The rate of change in todays world is constantly increasing. Everything that exists is getting old, wearing out and should be replaced. Revolutionary technologies, consolidation, well-funded new competition, unpredictable customers, and a quickening in the pace of change hurled unfamiliar conditions at management. Realities of Todays World The magnitude of todays environmental, competitive, and global market change is unprecedented. Its a very interesting and exciting world, but its also volatile and chaotic: Volatility describes the economys rate of change: extremely fast, with explosive upsurges and sudden downturns. Chaos describes the direction of the economys changes: were not sure exactly where were headed, but we are swinging between the various alternatives at a very high speed. To cope with an unpredictable world you must build an enormous amount of flexibility into your organization. While you cannot predict the future, you can get a handle on trends, which is a way to take advantage of change and convert risks into opportunities. DISCUSSION OF CHANGE MANAGEMENT THEORIES Plan Do Check Act  Plan, Do, Check, Act is a cycle of activities designed to drive continuous improvement. Initially implemented in manufacturing, it has broad applicability in business. First developed by Walter Shewhart, it was popularized by Edwards Deming. It originated in the 1920s with the eminent statistics expert Mr. Walter A. Shewhart, who introduced the concept of PLAN, DO and SEE. The late Total Quality Management (TQM) guru and renowned statistician W. Edwards Deming modified the Shewhart cycle as: PLAN, DO, STUDY, and ACT.PDCA (plan-do-check-act) is a four-step problem-solving process typically used in business process improvement. It is also called as Shewhart cycle, Deming cycle, PDSA (PLAN DO STUDY ACT),PDCA (PLAN DO CHECK ACT). It reduced error rate during implementation the Plan, Do, Check, Act cycle in manufacturing.This Act is useful for change management. The PDCA cycle should be repeated again and again for continuous improvement. PLAN: Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with the expected output. By making the expected output the focus, it differs from other techniques in that the completeness and accuracy of the specification is also part of the improvement. PROCEDURE- Recognize an opportunity and plan a change. DO: Implement the new processes. Often on a small scale if possible. PROCEDURE- Executes the plan, taking small steps in controlled circumstances. CHECK: Measure the new processes and compare the results against the expected results to ascertain any differences. PROCEDURE- Review the test, analyze the results and identify what youve learned. ACT: Analyse the differences to determine their cause. Each will be part of either one or more of the P-D-C-A steps. Determine where to apply changes that will include improvement. When a pass through these four steps does not result in the need to improve, refine the scope to which PDCA is applied until there is a plan that involves improvement. PROCEDURE- Take action to standardize or improve the process. Benefits of the PDCA cycle: daily routine management-for the individual and/or the team, problem-solving process, project management, continuous development, vendor development, human resources development, new product development, and process trials Lewins Freeze Phases- In the early 20th century, the psychologist Kurt Lewin developed the model known as Lewins Freeze Phases and which still forms the underlying basis of many change management theories models and strategies for managing change. His model suggests that change involves a move from one static state via a state of activity to another static status quo -and all this via a three-stage process of managing change: unfreezing, changing and re-freezing. Unfreezing: Faced with a dilemma or disconfirmation, the individual or group becomes aware of a need to change. Changing: The situation is diagnosed and new models of behaviour are explored and tested. Refreezing: Application of new behaviour is evaluated, and if reinforcing, adopted in figure 1 summarizes the steps and processes involved in planned change through action research. Action research is depicted as a cyclical process of change. Figure Kurt Lewins change model recognizes that people derive a strong sense of identity to from their environment. It also recognizes that they like the safety, comfort and feeling of control within their environment. ISSUE TO CHANGE Our CEO, Tony Schwartz first met with Sony Pictures Entertainment (SPE) co-CEOs, Michael Lynton and Amy Pascal, in the summer of 2007. Pascal and Lynton saw the work of the Energy Project as a way to bring to life their vision of making Sony the most desirable studio to work for and of building a culture of high engagement. Initially, Tony worked with Lynton and Pascal and their team of 17 direct reports. The initial focus was on how they managed their own energy individually, and as an intact team. This senior group found our curriculum sufficiently valuable that they asked to brong it to the top 500 executives, all vice president or above.  A 2007 Towers Perrin survey of nearly 90,000 employees worldwide, for instance, found that only 21% felt fully engaged at work and nearly 40% were disenchanted or disengaged. That negativity has a direct impact on the bottom line. Towers Perrin found that companies with low levels of employee engagement had a 33% annual decline in operating income and an 11% annual decline in earnings growth. Those with high engagement, on the other hand, reported a 19% increase in operating income and 28% growth in earnings per share. Nearly a decade ago, the Energy Project, the company I head, began to address work performance and the problem of employee disengagement. We still believe that enduring organizational change is possible only if individuals alter their attitudes and behaviors first. Weve come to understand that its not possible to generate lasting cultural change without deeply involving an organizations senior leadership. IMPLEMENTATION OF CHANGE MANAGEMENT Once people understand how their supply of available energy is influenced by the choices they make, they can learn new strategies that increase the fuel in their tanks and boost their productivity.   They include practices such as shutting down your e-mail for a couple of hours during the day, so you can tackle important or complex tasks without distracting interruptions, or taking a daily 3 PM walk to get an emotional and mental breather. Two fundamental shifts-  We encouraged Sony to make two fundamental shifts in the way it manages employees. We also created a three -day version of a new way of working that included a renewal day that provided participants with specific techniques to improve the quality, quantity and focus of their energy. This day featured individual consults with a nutritionist, exercise physiologist and massage therapist as well as group circuit training, yoga and meditation. Group coaching was offered during the 3 day sessions and then on twice more two and four weeks after the end of the session. The purpose of the coaching was to support the participants in successfully launching and sustaining the rituals they built once they had returned to the challenges of their daily life. Tony continued to work with Pascal and Lynton a senior team on a quarterly basis throughout 2008 to help them model the behaviors they learned and to drive the work down through their own teams. TRANSFORMATION IN SONY PICTURES Sony pictures went through a transformation in order to embrace energy building and renewing rituals at all levels. Out of the 3000 employees of the 6300 employees of Sony have gone through the energy management program. This summer 1700 more will be covered from Europe, Singapore, and Latin America. OVERCOMING RESISTANCE IN EMPLOYEE The reaction of the program has been overwhelmingly positive. 88% of the participants say, it has made them more focused and productive. Some 90% of them reported that as a result of the work, they began bringing higher levels of energy to work every day. 84% say they feel better and are able to manage their jobs demands and are more engaged at work. Sonys leaders believe that these changes have helped boost the companys performance. E.g. in spite of recession also Sony pictures had its most profitable year ever in 2008 and one of its highest revenue years in 2009. SUSTAINING CHANGE For sustaining change of the Sony Pictures, there are some important points which must keep in mind. These are as under: Employee should be highly engaged. Employee should be friendly. High performance culture. As a leader, you have myriad opportunities to set the right context for your employees to replenish their energy. Its all about providing examples for others and creating a safe environment. DOS AND DONTS FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF CULTURAL CHANGE Management is doing things right; Leadership is doing the right things. -Peter Drucker STRATEGIES OF A POSITIVE CHANGE So that Sony pictures can progress. Conclusion CHANGE STARTS AT THE TOP AND BEGINS ON DAY 1. REAL CHANGE HAPPENS AT THE BOTTOM. IN ORDER TO CHANGE OTHERS FIRST YOU SHOULD YOURSELF AS LYNTON AND PASCAL DID. E.Q IS ONE OF THE KEY ELEMENTS TOWARDS POSITIVE BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE WHICH ULTIMATELY LEADS TO THE GOAL OF A SUCCESSFUL CHANGE MANAGEMENT. STRONG CULTURAL VALUES ACTS AS A MAGNET IN THE SUCCESS OF A COMPANY WHICH BINDS AN EMPLOYEE IRRESPECTIVE OF THE EXTERNAL FACTORS LIKE RECESSION OR ECONOMY.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
A View From The Bridge - Questions and Answers :: View From The Bridge Essays
A View From The Bridge:  Questions and Answers          â€Å"Eddie has rather strict old-world notions of decorum†. Find some evidence to support this.  How does traditional cultural values come into conflict with modern values in the play?  In the play, Miller explores both written and unwritten laws. Make 2 lists under these headings to see how many you can come up with. The conditions/difficulties faced by migrants are explored in this play. What are they?   In what ways are physical, emotional/personal conflict explored in the play?        How is the play resolved? Is this a satisfactory resolution? 4. â€Å"Eddie has rather strict old-world notions of decorum†. Find some evidence to support this. Eddie is a larger-than-life figure; he is authoritative, willful, dogmatic and energetic. In relation to his wife, Beatrice, and with the out side world, he is serenely masterful. Eddie is a man with a rather thin surface of good humour; underneath, he is quarrelsome and authoritative. Although he loves Catherine he expects her to live according to his expectations. Eddie appears to be completely satisfied with the way his family is at the beginning of the play; it is the possibility of change that upsets him.  Eddie is prepared to believe, and say, anything that will keep the family together, to maintain the integrity of his family life and the relationship he has with Catherine. In the end Eddie pictures himself as a generous extrovert, and he is wiling to fight to the death to preserve his ‘name’ for liberalism and honour, whose limitations have been exposed by his behavior towards the family.            In Act I, in the last few scenes, Eddie tries to assert an authoritative manner upon Marco and Rodolpho, aiming the threats mostly at Rodolpho. In one scene Eddie points out to them that Catherine is coming in later than usually that she should be home at a certain time, thereby setting rules for her and Rodolpho. There is also the homosexuality theme, which is play on by Eddie he tries to convince others that Rodolpho is gay so that Catherine will stay away from him, but in the end he betrays the cousins and everyone loses the respect they have for him. 6. How does traditional cultural values come into conflict with modern values in the play?            In the play I believe Eddie is the symbol for the traditional cultural values, while Rodolpho is with the modern, young values.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
Circumstances that Justify the Use of Physician-Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia :: Free Euthanasia Essay
Circumstances that Justify the Use of Euthanasia "...the elderly patients...are comatose. They weigh practically nothing. Their skin hangs in heavy folds on their skeletons. 'These patients must be fed through gastric tubes pushed down their throats,' Dr. Peter Haemmerli explains, and that can make even comatose patients retch and vomit." (Culliton 1273). Thus, according to Barbara J. Culliton, many severely ill patients must endure much pain. Not a very pretty scene, is it? Is it right to keep them living in this pain? Wouldn't it be more humane to give them a painless release from their agony? For this irreversibly comatose patient euthanasia would be justified. Now consider the patient suffering from malignant cancer or some other terminal disease. How "right" is it to keep injecting drugs and performing small operations to keep the patient alive, only to lengthen his suffering? As in the case of the irreversibly comatose patient, euthanasia is not only morally justified, it is the only alternative for those truly concerned with the patient's welfare. Euthanasis is clinically defined as an "act or practice of painlessly putting to death persons suffering from incurable conditions or diseases" (Bok 1). The word "euthanasia" is generally also applied to cases in which the doctor withdraws the machines or drugs which are keeping the patient alive and thus allows the patient to die naturally. Euthanasia ends pain mercifully and easily. It is used when the pain of degradation of life or the pain of a terminal disease is greater than the pain of death (Heifetz 5). In these cases death is not the nightmare experienced in war, but rather an alternative to endless pain. "At times we must look at death as a welcome release from an untenable life. Death need not be a source of horror. It can be freedom, a release from agony" (Heifetz 5). This observation by Dr. Milton D. Heifetz encompasses the purpose of euthanasia: to provide "a welcome release from an untenable life" (5). One such "untenable life" would be that of the irreversibly comatose patient. The most widely accepted definition of an irreversible coma states that the patient displays total "unreceptivity and unresponsivity. Circumstances that Justify the Use of Physician-Assisted Suicide and Euthanasia :: Free Euthanasia Essay Circumstances that Justify the Use of Euthanasia "...the elderly patients...are comatose. They weigh practically nothing. Their skin hangs in heavy folds on their skeletons. 'These patients must be fed through gastric tubes pushed down their throats,' Dr. Peter Haemmerli explains, and that can make even comatose patients retch and vomit." (Culliton 1273). Thus, according to Barbara J. Culliton, many severely ill patients must endure much pain. Not a very pretty scene, is it? Is it right to keep them living in this pain? Wouldn't it be more humane to give them a painless release from their agony? For this irreversibly comatose patient euthanasia would be justified. Now consider the patient suffering from malignant cancer or some other terminal disease. How "right" is it to keep injecting drugs and performing small operations to keep the patient alive, only to lengthen his suffering? As in the case of the irreversibly comatose patient, euthanasia is not only morally justified, it is the only alternative for those truly concerned with the patient's welfare. Euthanasis is clinically defined as an "act or practice of painlessly putting to death persons suffering from incurable conditions or diseases" (Bok 1). The word "euthanasia" is generally also applied to cases in which the doctor withdraws the machines or drugs which are keeping the patient alive and thus allows the patient to die naturally. Euthanasia ends pain mercifully and easily. It is used when the pain of degradation of life or the pain of a terminal disease is greater than the pain of death (Heifetz 5). In these cases death is not the nightmare experienced in war, but rather an alternative to endless pain. "At times we must look at death as a welcome release from an untenable life. Death need not be a source of horror. It can be freedom, a release from agony" (Heifetz 5). This observation by Dr. Milton D. Heifetz encompasses the purpose of euthanasia: to provide "a welcome release from an untenable life" (5). One such "untenable life" would be that of the irreversibly comatose patient. The most widely accepted definition of an irreversible coma states that the patient displays total "unreceptivity and unresponsivity.
Monday, September 2, 2019
Sallie Baliunas and the Dangers of Think Tanks :: Global Warming
Sallie Baliunas and the Dangers of Think Tanks Public policy makers increasingly rely on the research of think tank scholars to guide their policy decisions. But who checks the accuracy of think tank scholar research? Unlike academic journal publishing, which follows a rigorous system of peer review and editorial oversight, think tanks publish opinion pieces without regard to the peer review process. Their policy publications are not based on pure academics, but on a complex interaction between academic, political, and economic interests. In Washington, there is no time to focus on the academic details. As Eric Altermann points out in his book What Liberal Media?, think tank scholars â€Å"are expected to spend at least as much time networking with reporters and government staffers as on research.†1 Efficient dissemination of information is as important as the information itself in the think tank business of knowledge. Sallie Baliunas of the Marshall Institute fits Altermann’s think tank scholar profile well. Regarding her involvement in the global warming debate, she has spent less time on the scholarship of global warming and more time advocating the idea that it is simply a myth. She is a senior scientist at the Marshall Institute, which supports her writing of articles against the Kyoto treaty (â€Å"Bush right to oppose [Kyoto] treaty†)2 and the promotion of the idea that global warming is a natural process caused by increased radiation from the sun (â€Å"The Sun Also Warms†).3 Though she has published relatively little in academic journals on the issue, articles such as these are numerous in conservative political forums, such as the website TechCentralStation.com, â€Å"where free markets meet technology.†4 Though she is not considered a global warming expert by professional climate scientists, she is oft quoted by the anti-Kyoto folks as the expert voice that pr oves global warming is a hoax (see any article by Charli Coon of the Heritage Foundation5 or by Chris de Freitas6). Her global warming research has been funded, in part, by corporate oil interests. Think Tanks Baliunas’s association with think tanks does not make her scholarship automatically suspect. However, think tanks dwell in the grey area between scholarship and advocacy, and one must ask in which category Baliunas belongs. Think tanks cannot claim to be completely unbiased, because the majority of their funding comes from corporations, whose interests are not usually only academic, but also economic. Baliunas is an â€Å"Enviro-Sci Host†for TechCentralStation.com, a website sponsored by AT&T, ExxonMobil, General Motors Corporation, Intel, McDonalds, Microsoft, Nasdaq, National Semiconductor, PhRMA, and Qualcomm.
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Children’s Exposure to Homosexuality in Popular Culture
The issue of homosexuality is a hot topic because of its religious, political, and social aspects that can be debated. The Family Research Report says â€Å"around 2-3% of men, and 2% of women, are homosexual or bisexual†(Gallup). Education on the topic is vital to promote acceptance and this can be done through formals or informal education. Formally, health care professionals or school sexual education classes can educate. But informally, parents, friends, and media are the most influential on people. In the media, homosexuality is portrayed in many ways and through many portals. In subtle ways it can be demonstrated with intimate friendships, inclusivity, hints, stereotypes, references, and physicality. The most easily influenced are children therefore they are the ones who need to be educated. Dennis says, â€Å"queering, locating undertows of same-sex desire between putatively heterosexual characters (Doty) is actually easier in programs targeted to children and adolescents than those targeted to adults†(739). Homosexual representations in popular culture on television positively and directly affect the acceptance of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transvestite individuals by younger generations. Inclusivity is important in children’s television programs to show viewers that heteronormativity is not the only option available in relationships. One show studied by Dennis uses a Nickelodeon show, Ned’s Declassified School Survival Guide, to demonstrate how subtle changes in dialogue can send a more positive message. The show is made as a guide to help adolescents survive in middle school or high school and offers tips on how to be successful in aspects not directly related to academics. In one episode Ned says â€Å"when you like someone†¦Ã¢â‚¬ when he could have just as easily said â€Å"when you like a girl†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Dennis 742). Changing the tip to include both sexes indicates that the character views a relationship to not be restrained to one sex or the other. While involving a more general target, the program also drops the notion that one sex must always be attracted to the opposite sex. Lack of such inclusivity leads children to grow up ignorant to the options they have and shows them that homosexuality is unacceptable. When a child relies on parents or formal education for sexual education, homosexuality is often excluded as a topic to be discussed and may be uncomfortable with it later in life when exposure is guaranteed. The largest case of ignorance and avoidance of the subject seems to be in the case of adolescent males, while adolescent girls tend to get a more complete and positive understanding of homosexuality in society (Herek, Cogan, and Gillis). Although it may be a difficult topic to discuss with children or allow children to be exposed to, depending on the individual’s beliefs or personal experience and knowledge, it is important that they give the children the information necessary to make decisions and judgments for themselves. This inclusivity positively affects children because they have the knowledge to accept individuals who are homosexual when they come in contact with them. In most cases in society, ignorance leads to fear, which is an unnecessary emotion when dealing with gay, lesbian, bisexual or transvestite people. Stereotypes, specifically defying stereotypes, are an effective tactic to promote acceptance in children’s television series. Because individuality is so important and applauded in our Western culture the defiance of social norms tends to be a good way to promote change or be noticed. Heteronormative ideals are no exception to this rule and therefore to promote acceptance and shift away from homophobic ideas in the media, homosexuality needs to be more prominent. A good example of how going against the norm is a successful way to get attention is the hit TV show The Simpsons. Everything about The Simpsons challenges the American Dream. It criticizes the hypocrisy within the American educational, religious, political, and economic systems (Tinglef). The Simpsons is also an example of defiance against heterosexual norms because there are many instances where the main character, Homer Simpson, acts in a way that is stereotypically homosexual such as kissing his secretary Carl, calling his wife Carl in bed, and having his favourite song be â€Å"It’s Raining Men†(Dennis 60). There are also secondary characters that act in a homosexual way such as Lenny, who sees a heaven full of Carls when he is dying. Another example is in Dennis’ study where he observed beauty as an important and frequent occurrence with males in young children’s programs, which is usually a trait attributed to females. This defiance of stereotypes is important for television series because it demonstrates the importance of individuality in our society and shows younger audiences that just because heterosexuality is the norm, it is not the only way to be. When children understand this at a young age, they will tend not to hold back homosexual feelings if they get them later in life. Subtle or obvious hints are important aspects to children’s programming because they demonstrate how homosexual ideas, behaviours, and acts are part of modern society. This exposure to subconscious hints implements the impression that these ideas, behaviours, and acts are not out of the ordinary and are to be accepted like all other aspects of society. While watching television, children often see same-sex couples portrayed as intimate friendships. An example is with bullies Crony and Loomer on Ned’s Declassified School Survival Guide who are always together. Some episodes show them doing stereotypical couple acts such as expressing jealousy if the other has a love interest. While studying the show, Dennis observed that in one episode Crony struggles to come out about his passion for fashion design, especially to Loomer, whom he thinks might end their friendship if he found out. Dennis describes this struggle as a metaphorical coming out as gay, especially when dealing with the issue of the â€Å"gender transgressive†interest in fashion (741). Hints such as those directed at intimate friendships and other homosexual behaviours positively affect the children watching the programs because they increase the belief in the normality of resistance against the heterosexual norms. Such hints of resistance can often be seen in children’s programming, especially in animated series with a high degree of fantasy (Dennis 744). Thanks to media exposure, acceptance of homosexual culture has become ncreasingly popular recently. Gay, lesbian, bisexual and transvestite people are more common in the media than ever before and homosexual culture is generally accepted in bigger cities. Homosexual actors and characters are also becoming more common on Harper, 5 television programs. One example is the TV show The Simpsons with several regular characters that are clearly homosexuals such as Mr. Smithers, Homer’s secretary Carl, and Marge’s sister Patty. It is important for adolescents to see this kind of diversity on TV so that they can be more accepting in their own communities. The Simpsons was awarded an Emmy Award for its 8th season, 15th episode, called Homer’s phobia for the lessons it gives on homosexuality and acceptance. In this episode, a gay parade that passes by the Simpsons’ home inspires Homer to attempt to man-up his son, Bart. Throughout the episode Homer has homophobic worries and tries to prevent Bart from turning gay, which is a negative lesson for children, but the show turns around at the end and Homer assures him of his unconditional love, whether he is straight or not (Padva 60). Through inclusivity, defying stereotypes, and giving subtly hints homosexuality in children’s television programs is increasing awareness and acceptance in younger generations of children. Although the incorporation of homosexual gestures and references in children’s television rises the question of why producers, directors, and actors decided to add them in the beginning, whether it was a purposeful act with political intentions, a deliberate but joking incorporation, or completely unintentional, it became evident that the effects are positive and will continue to be positive for as long as homosexual representation is positive.
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